So what?  This "direct" approach saves time and immediately satisfies your audience's curiosity about your purpose.  The brief rationale helps readers accept your decision.  These messages are often shorter than indirect messages because they deal with simpler situations which require little explanation.

When conveying bad news, if your audience is likely to be surprised and seriously disappointed, present the reasons before the “news.” For example, instead of saying, “The annual company Labor Day picnic originally scheduled for Sept. 2 at Lincoln Park has been canceled,” write “Because repair work at Lincoln Park might present safety concerns to our employees and their families, the Labor Day picnic originally scheduled for Sept. 2 has been canceled.”

So what? When your audience is likely to have an emotional response to “bad news,” discussing the reasons first helps to “build the case” and demonstrate that the decision was logical and reasonable. When the audience understands the reasonableness of the decision, it is less likely to be disappointed in the outcome.

So what? Depersonalizing the message creates a more objective, tactful tone. Additionally, using passive voice focuses on the behavior (delaying the order), rather than on the person.

When conveying bad news, avoid such words as "mistake", "problem", "unfortunately", "impossible", and discuss what can be done rather than what cannot be done. Instead of saying, "I'm so sorry that we cannot honor your special request for delivery on Thursday", say, "As initially promised, you will receive your order first thing Friday morning."

So what? The assumption is that you reached your decision by analyzing all the relevant information and that the decision is a reasonable one. If you can realistically assume that if the reader were faced with the same options and had the same information available, he or she would act in a similar way, there is no reason to apologize for any reasonable business decision.

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So what?  Intercultural misunderstandings can easily result when these differences are not understood.  Effective communicators are aware of cultural differences and make the necessary modifications in their communication.

Learn the interpersonal communication conventions when dealing with your international partners.  For examples, if your proposal is met with silence in Japan, it does not necessarily mean that the audience doesn't like your idea; it can also mean that the customer is deliberating and thinking.  In fact, speaking too quickly can be perceived by the Japanese as being impatient and having poor negotiating skills.

So what?  Norms of accepted behaviors are deeply woven into a culture.  People from the culture may not even be aware of those conventions.  Americans, for example, are often unaware that they are perceived as being overly talkative by some Europeans.  Effective communicators are aware of how they may be sending unintended or inappropriate messages.

Forge alliances with other departments that are critical to your success. A starting point might be to ask for a tour of the other departments or hold a "show and tell" session where the various departments share their "work-in-progress".

So what? 65% of organizations experience major interdepartmental communication problems. People who effectively work across organizational boundaries increase the probability of their department's and organization's success because they are able to limit misunderstandings and encourage cooperative problem-solving.

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Be alert to unstated resistance points to a change effort.  Ideally people would tell you what concerns they have, but often they are unwilling to express them due to fear of embarrassment or anxiety over the unknown.  For example, one office worker who resisted a change to a new office technology was initially perceived by her supervisor as being stubborn and ornery.  But after probing, the supervisor realized that the employee was afraid that she couldn't learn the new technology and was embarrassed to admit it.

So what?  Change initiators cannot assume that employees will be able to identify and articulate all of their concerns.  Common unstated resistance points revolve around fear of the unknown, loss of status or financial insecurity.  Wise planners take this into account which allows them to better help employees prepare for the change.

When communicating about a change, discuss the “upside” as well as the “downside”. There is a strong tendency when announcing a change to only discuss the positives. When Winston Churchill became Prime Minister during World War II, his optimism was always tempered with reality. He often communicated that he and others would have to offer their “blood, toil, tears and sweat” during this time.

So what? Sharing concerns with employees and coworkers minimizes the “cheerleading” impact and presents a more realistic picture of the change. Research has revealed that it cultivates a climate of trust and builds confidence in the decision-making process. People are more willing to sustain the effort when inevitable obstacles surface. It also demonstrates that the change leaders have devoted time to thoroughly studying the issue.

When helping people through an organizational change, match your communication to their stage of reaction. People typically go through stages of denial, followed by anger, bargaining, depression, and finally, acceptance when faced with a major change. For example, in the denial stage, it is appropriate to discuss the rationale for the change and legitimize concerns. It is not appropriate to ridicule the person’s denial or ignore the resistance.

So what? Identifying the stage of reaction and communicating appropriately legitimizes their “grief”. It helps them process the change and move through the stages more quickly.

When helping employees through an organizational change, make sure to provide for opportunities to "harvest the dissent". Harvesting the dissent involves proactively soliciting worker concerns about the change in a supportive environment. For example, a simple technique might involve 1) asking employees to voice their concerns in a meeting, 2) recording their concerns in a non-evaluative manner on a flip chart, 3) lead a discussion on several critical issues, 4) transform the list and discussion into a Q & A document, and 5) distribute the Q & A to employees in a timely manner.

So what? Harvesting the dissent acts as a type of "safety valve". Wise leaders use this as an opportunity to start to deal with the concerns, recognizing that if they don't harvest and manage the dissent, then someone else will. As a result, employees' concerns are legitimized, de-personalized and de-emotionalized. A divisive climate does not magically disappear because leaders refuse to acknowledge it; "silence is not necessarily golden".

Avoid under-communicating when sharing information about a non-routine and complex organizational change. Change initiators often share limited information because they may inaccurately assume that their audience has the necessary knowledge and they underestimate the impact the change will have. For example, computer programmers upgrading software may limit communication about the change because they view it as relatively minor. The user may view it as a more complex change, therefore requiring more information.

So What? Communicating requires a receiver-orientation rather than a sender-orientation. Employees are more likely to "buy in" to change when they feel that adequate information has been provided.

Identify and utilize key opinion leaders when you’re building support for an initiative. Opinion leaders may not have a formal leadership position in the organization, but they are respected for their insight and expertise. They help group members make sense of organizational life, and they set the norms for acceptable and unacceptable behavior. If opinion leaders express resistance, managers need to address their concerns and determine how to gain their endorsement.

So What? In many respects, the “buy-in” of the opinion leaders is the most important determinant of whether programs succeed or fail. Once they are convinced, they will in turn, influence others. The opinion leaders are clearly influential yet are often overlooked by change initiators.

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So what?  The communication channels you choose have a profound effect on the level of effectiveness you achieve.  Every channel has its limitations and there is always a tradeoff when selecting one channel over another.

When writing e-mails, divide material into short paragraphs, putting the main point of each paragraph first. Double-space between paragraphs to add white space. Conclude in a straightforward way, avoiding clichés such as, “let me know if I can be of any more assistance”.

So what? Users tend to glance over e-mails quickly. These techniques help them grasp your message with short lines and short paragraphs. Over-used statements drag out the ending and do not provide needed information.

Incorporate more courtesies such as “please” and “thank you” in e-mails. Use language that expresses collegiality. For example, if you want to show deference to your audience, try softening verbs by adding “this might work”. Use emoticons such as :-), in only the most informal e-mails.

So what? Written communication lacks important nonverbal cues that relay the tone and feel of your remarks. As a result, you have to rely more on expressive language to convey your feelings.

Use a "rich" communication channel for persuasive situations. A rich channel allows you to receive and provide instantaneous feedback. For example, if you need to garner support for a potentially controversial program, have a face-to-face meeting rather than use e-mail or voice mail.

So what? Persuasive situations demand that the sender is able to quickly adapt the message to the receiver to counter any objections. Neither e-mail nor voice mail provide that ability. Face-to-face communication offers the sender the greatest flexibility.

Use e-mail to transmit factual information, not to criticize a colleague or communicate a sensitive message. In writing e-mails, make sure the subject line is simple, descriptive and attracts the reader's attention. When making a request, use an action verb in the subject line, such as "Provide input on slides".

So what? E-mail is a "lean" channel that does not allow for quick feedback, or the ability to read non-verbal cues. Therefore, it is best for non-emotional, objective messages. The subject line is the gateway to further communication. In the case of making a request, users are more likely to open e-mail requesting specific action.

When writing e-mails, state up front any requests for action and information the reader must see. Preview and number multiple points, requests, or steps to be taken. For example, write "This e-mail explains the six steps you need to take to change health insurance providers."

So what? These techniques make it more likely that the message will be read and understood. The underlying assumption is that the reader will look at the first screen of your message. If the message is longer, the preview alerts them to scroll down.

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Verify that another party is interested in receiving your advice before you offer it.  A web designer thought he was being helpful by writing an unsolicited e-mail to his consultant-friend about ways the consultant could enhance his website.  The consultant thought the web designer was being presumptuous; the web designer thought his friend was ungrateful because he did not express appreciation for the advice.  As an alternative, the web designer could have casually mentioned, "If you'd ever like me to share some ideas that have worked, I'd be happy to do so..."

So what?  Most people need to be psychologically prepared to receive advice.  When prepared, they're more likely to find the advice helpful and the relationship affirming.  Unsolicited advice can undermine a relationship because it implies that "my ideas or approach" are better than yours.

Modify your communication according to the degree to which your audience wants to receive direction and leadership.  Someone who needs direction and structure might appear hesitant, be indecisive, or ask for reinforcement, clarification or simply, "What do you want me to do?"  In this instance, provide the person with more details, lists and step-by-step directions.

So what?  Adapting your communication strategy to your audience's needs and tendencies--instead of assuming that we all have the same needs--will enhance the likelihood that your communication will be effective.

Modify your communication style according to the degree to which your coworker or colleague wants to be included and feel part of a group.  Those who have a high degree of wanting inclusion may exhibit this by joining groups, wearing trendy clothes, or saying things such as "What's everybody doing?"  In this instance, use inclusionary language such as "we", "team", "join us", "we're all in this together", and ask questions such as "How can we work together?"

So what?  Modifying your communication according to your audience's personality tendencies and needs will increase the likelihood of motivating them and preventing conflicts.

To further engage employees or coworkers, share a few stories about how your customers, clients or other stakeholders were affected by your product or service. For example, instead of sharing statistics or facts, recount an actual event or share a picture of a success story.

So what? Research shows that people pay more attention to a story than they do to a statistic. Sharing stories make your points “come alive”; they are more likely to be motivating, memorable and attention-grabbing.

Modify your communication according to how your audience makes decisions and forms opinions. On one end of the continuum are people who make decisions based on logic and facts, weighing the evidence to arrive at an objective decision. When communicating with this type, be brief and concise, calm and reasonable, and present the pros and cons. On the other end of the continuum are those who make a decision based on how it may impact relationships and others’ feelings, seeking ways that avoid conflict. When communicating with this type, show how the idea affects people and is valuable to them, and be aware of how you communicate in terms of your nonverbals and body language.

So what? Adapting your communication strategy to different personality types will more effectively “link” to the needs and tendencies of your audience, thereby increasing the likelihood that the communication will be effective.

Use the buddy system when preparing communications. Effective communicators will often have someone who reads over and checks written and oral communication before it’s distributed. This may reveal some conceptual errors (such as misinterpretations or missing pieces) and technical errors (such as spelling or grammar). A friendly critic provides constructive and actionable feedback.

So what? As C.S. Lewis once said, “Two heads are better than one, not because either is infallible, but because they are unlikely to go wrong in the same direction.” As each person performs duties for the other, the communication skills of each will be enhanced.

Modify your communication style according to your audience's level of introversion or extroversion. For example, introverts may appear contemplative or prefer to think before responding. Therefore, allow thinking time and ideally, an opportunity for them to write down ideas before you request information. On the other hand, extroverts may be uncomfortable with silence and seem to get more energy as they talk and interact with others. As a result, use an agenda to keep a discussion on track and consider incorporating group activities in a meeting.

So what? Adapting your communication strategy to different personality types will more effectively "link" to the needs and tendencies of your audience, thereby increasing the likelihood that the communication will be effective.

Modify your communication style according to your audience's information-gathering tendencies. For example, some people are more focused on the "here and now" and come to understand things by tangibly seeing, touching and feeling. They ask for specifics and like order. Therefore, in communicating with them, be orderly and direct (i.e., show steps in a process), and provide details--facts, figures and evidence. On the other end of the continuum are people who are more intuitive-they look for the big picture and relationships, work in bursts, and are more future-oriented. Therefore, discuss the main idea first, avoid details unless asked and emphasize the possibilities.

So what? Adapting your communication strategy to different personality types will more effectively "link" to the needs and tendencies of your audience, thereby increasing the likelihood that the communication will be effective.

Modify your communication according to the degree of structure and organization your audience prefers. On one end of the continuum are people who are very organized and like things settled which is revealed by the lists they maintain and their very organized desk, car, or calendar. In communicating with this type, show a timetable, allow them time for preparation and, above all, do not put them on the spot. On the other end of the continuum are those who are creative, don't like routine or structure and can be easily distracted. In communicating with more intuitive people, present new ideas, allow for discussions to flow and provide options.

So what? Adapting your communication strategy to different personality types will more effectively "link" to the needs and tendencies of your audience, thereby increasing the likelihood that the communication will be effective.

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So what?  By legitimizing and "constructively misunderstanding" a person's comment, you've opened up the possibility for further dialogue.

In conflict situations, use "I" statements to express your own feelings.  For example, instead of saying, "You never do your share of the work," try "I feel that I'm doing more than my share of the work on this project."

So what?  In negative situations, "you" statements convey anger and evaluation.  As a result, they are more likely to lead to an escalation of the conflict.  On the other hand, "I" statements are more likely to diffuse hostility and protect the ego of the audience.

When dealing with a conflict situation, first focus on areas of agreement. For example, assume someone in another department is upset with the speed at which your departments responds to his requests for information.  He may convey, "You guys never seem to get back to us with the information we request."  Assuming there is some truth to the criticism, you might respond, "It's true that the revenue and cost projections you requested several weeks ago aren't ready."  Then, let the critic respond.  In other words, focus on restating a fact, rather than evaluating, justifying or explaining.

So what?  This approach helps diffuse the conflict.  Additionally, it communicates that you're listening and it gives you time to think so you're better able to respond to the criticism rather than act defensively.

Contemplate what employees or coworkers are signaling by their anger.  Might it indicate that they're under stress?  Is their anger being used as a tool to avoid further work or inhibit further discussion of other points of view?  For instance, an employee who gets angry during a performance review may be using the emotion to avoid hearing about continuous improvement ideas because of the uncertainty of trying new things.

So what? People, consciously or unconsciously, use anger or other displays of emotion to achieve a variety of personal objectives.  Determining the underlying source of emotion can help you better manage and confront issues.

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So what? Every method of gathering information has some sort of blindspot. Using multiple methods gives you a deeper insight in to the issues at hand. For example, a survey might reveal that employees are dissatisfied, but probing in an interview might uncover their specific concerns.

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Cross-examine the presenters of proposals.  Think of how an attorney questions a witness:  How sure are you of this?  Where did the evidence come from?  What would happen if we don't pursue this?  What is the upside and downside of the proposal?

So what?  This allows you and others to test the soundness of a proposal by judging the quality of evidence, reasoning and projections.  Also, by verbally justifying their proposal, it helps the presenters bolster their defense.

Watch out for hindsight bias when making sense of an event.  Hindsight bias, or the Monday-morning-quarterback effect, is believing that we had better knowledge of the outcome of an uncertain situation before it occurred than we really did.  For example, assume that an economist projects that mortgage rates will remain level or decrease in the near-term.  Several years later when rates increase, the economist falls prey to hindsight bias when she expresses, "The recent rise in mortgage rates was no surprise; we were expecting it."  To minimize the susceptibility to this, keep notes of how and why you made your decisions.

So what?  Hindsight bias limits the learning that we could derive from making a decision.  As a result, it minimizes our opportunity to sharpen our skills for future decision-making.

Carefully plan your message when you're communicating a decision to a group that has not been involved in the decision-making process.  In particular, make sure your message includes:  1)  how the decision was made, 2) why it was made, 3) what alternatives were considered, 4) how it fits into the organization's mission and vision, 5) how it affects the company and 6) how it affects employees.

So what?  Our recent study shows that employees who were provided this information were more than twice as likely to support those decisions as employees who received little of that information.  If you'd like to read further about this research done by Metacomm, view the "news" item on the Metacomm home page on "Decision Downloading."

Screen out alternatives for your audience or decision-making team.  For example, it's more effective to consider 3 or 4 alternatives rather than 15.  In fact, studies revealed that when shoppers had a choice of 24 different jams, only 3% bought, but when 6 jams were offered, 30% purchased.

So what?  Having many choices is exciting from an observer's point of view, but can be overwhelming and paralyzing from a decision-maker's point of view.  If and when we do act, we often make inferior choices or are not satisfied with our choice.  Part of the way we add value is to screen out choices so that others don't need to invest the time to understand and choose the alternatives.

Watch for maximizing tendencies when you are making a decision.  Maximizers seek and accept only "the best"; they need to be assured that every action they take and every decision they make is the best that can be made.  Try instead to find the "good enough" alternative.

So what?  Research reveals that the cost of maximizing is high:  it makes us more susceptible to regret, as well as increases our stress and anxiety.  Additionally, the maximizer's quest for perfection does not necessarily lead to a better quality of decision.

Seek agreement on the criteria by which your group judges possible solutions before making a final decision.  For example, if your group is deciding on the location for an off-site meeting, you may decide that the criteria by which to judge a meeting location are:  convenience, availability of media services and size of meeting rooms.  After your group has brainstormed possible solutions, apply the criteria to each of your alternatives to arrive at your final solution.

So what?  This approach makes the selection process more systematic and objective.  Additionally, by discussing the criteria and applying it to all the possibilities, you better understand the preferences of the group members and why they may disagree with a particular solution.  This is not apparent when the group relies on a simple vote to arrive at a decision.

Don't assume that your decisions are self-evident.  Often decision-makers spend many hours arriving at a decision after carefully weighing alternatives.  They often fail to remember that their audience hasn't gone through this process of contemplation and analysis of options.  Consequently, they focus on communicating the facts and decisions, not the process and rationale.

So what?  Communicators who think their decisions are self-evident are often perturbed by questions about those decisions.  Sharing your rationale and the process you've gone through provides insight to coworkers and employees about how the decision was made.  It also helps them experience--in an abbreviated manner--the deliberation and reflection that went into the decision.

Prior to making a decision in a group meeting, allow anyone in the group to act as an advocate "for" or "against" a particular alternative.  Give each advocate 1 minute to "sell" his or her recommendation.

So what?  This approach allows people to expeditiously express their preferences while providing members a chance to seriously think through alternatives and their preferred position.

Avoid evaluating ideas during a brainstorming session. The focus of brainstorming is to generate ideas. Only after all ideas have been generated is it appropriate to 1) defend them and 2) discuss the pros and cons of each.

So what? Preliminary evaluation inhibits creativity and hinders people from offering other ideas.

Check the “velocity” of your decision-making. The speed for decision-making needs to match the pace of change in the business environment. Are you exceeding the speed limit or going too slowly?

So what? Effective decision-makers tend to make decisions at the appropriate speed. If they make decisions too slowly, they may miss opportunities; if they make decisions too quickly, they may make mistakes by not considering all the angles.

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So what?  After the introduction, the single most-read portion of a letter is the postscript.  Average readers spend only several seconds reading the introduction.  Then they move to the postscript to determine if the letter is personal and has relevance to them.  If the letter fails on these accounts, the average person won't read anything else.

Position information you want to emphasize in the beginning or end of your oral presentation or written communication.  For example, to deemphasize negative information, put it in the middle of a document rather than in the first or last paragraph.  Similarly, place the negative information in the middle of a paragraph rather than the first or last sentence.

So what?  Research reveals that people pay attention to what comes first and what comes last.  What is in-between gets the least amount of attention.

Look for opportunities to increase the readability of your message. Specifically, use: short paragraphs, headings to clarify the organization, bullets to highlight information in lists, and caps or underlining (but not both) to emphasize important information.

So what? The message looks more inviting and eases reading. It also helps the reader to access the information on an "as needed basis", much like the effect of a "pull-down" menu.

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So what?  Having a "devil's advocate" helps the group to better crystallize its ideas.  The advocate encourages the group to test the soundness and viability of its plan.  At the very least, the advocate will be able to identify potential resistance points.

Increase your influence in a group by volunteering for auxiliary tasks such as planning logistics, preparing materials or making contacts with key individuals.  This is especially well suited to introverts who may need more time feeling comfortable in a group and may not feel comfortable verbalizing their thoughts.

So what?  These activities may seem secondary to participating in verbal discussion and decision-making, but they help to increase your credibility and goodwill by demonstrating a willingness to work for the good of the group.

When working in a group, ask all members to prepare a “Personal Instruction Manual”. Almost every product we buy comes with a guide covering assembly, use and warnings. Similarly, each group member could prepare a manual about how to best work with him or her. You might include such things as pet peeves, personality tendencies and time constraints.

So what? The more group members know about each other, the more they’re likely to understand and anticipate team members’ reactions, concerns and objections. You can use the information to motivate group members and better manage conflict, resulting in greater group harmony.

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So what?  This augments your credibility by demonstrating that you can be trusted with confidential information.  Moreover, you've allowed yourself some "wiggle room" to provide more information in the future.  It also reveals that you're managing on a formal basis rather than managing informally by responding to innuendo.

Be wary of seemingly contradictory and confusing written information.  For example, there are often instances when it is difficult to decipher important information like the final cost of a product, the total time needed to complete a project or the expected rate of return on an investment.

So what?  Sometimes people produce and send information that is intended to confuse or possibly, to deceive.  The result is that the audience often feels intimidated and inadequate, and is hesitant to ask further questions.

Use quotations from prominent people to set the tone for your communication.  One speaker wanted to encourage his audience to embrace change in the organization.  On the top of the handouts he distributed was the following quote from the famous basketball coach, John Wooden:  "Failure is never fatal, but failure to change might be."  He educated his audience about Wooden's successes both on the court and off.  Then he expanded on the quote and presented a model of how to manage change in the organization.

So what?  A quote from a credible source enhances your credibility and can stimulate critical thinking.  It can also demonstrate that you've "done your homework" and thought deeply about an issue.  Often a single quote captures a rich thought in a pithy way.  Your audience will likely remember the quote as a touchstone for your communication.

Use familiar visual images to communicate abstract ideas.  For example, if you're trying to communicate how much a one-cup serving size of popcorn or cereal is, compare it to the size of a baseball;  a 4 oz. chicken breast is the size of a deck of cards.

So what?  This approach is powerful because the visual images are so familiar.  This makes the concept easy for the audience to relate to and remember.

Consistently color code slides and handouts to signal a particular type of information or how a particular type of information should be treated. It may be something such as: green--information only; red--a decision is needed, etc.

So what? This type of schema helps to flag messages. As a result, employees are able to quickly identify how to treat different information. If used consistently, the schema builds the credibility of the communication system and demonstrates a sensitivity to audience members. In essence, it helps avoid the “spray and pray” method of communication (spraying out information and praying employees will understand).

Consume a “balanced communication diet”. All information sources contain some bias and filter out cues. A steady diet of facts and figures may lack the richness of a few compelling stories. Likewise, a couple of rumors might relay emotional content, but fail to capture what’s going on with the typical employee in the organization.

So what? By relying on multiple information sources, you’re more likely to understand the true dynamics of a situation and better interpret conflicting signals. Humans naturally severely limit their sources of information during stressful times. A more “balanced diet” of information sources helps to counteract this tendency.

Watch the “expiration date” on the information you receive. Most information has a limited lifespan. For many years, the consumption of orange juice remained relatively stable until the advent of low carbohydrate diets. A two-year old marketing study of orange juice buying trends would not account for this change.

So what? By recognizing the “perishability date” of information, you are less likely to make faulty assumptions, inappropriate projections and poor decisions.

Structure the workplace to encourage informal information and knowledge-sharing. Companies have done this by setting aside time for employees from different departments to discuss their latest success stories and quandaries. Company social gatherings such as holiday parties can create new networks and relationships that can facilitate the smooth flow of information.

So what? Studies have shown that up to 70% of workplace learning is informal. In fact, many companies have reported problems with using overly formalized tools like computerized databases as a means to share information and knowledge. Knowledge flows through organizations based on pre-existing networks of relationships. So, successful companies cultivate useful informal networks.

Communicate your intuitions by drawing more pictures and diagrams. They often help you articulate something hidden in your unconscious and may help fellow employees visualize the underlying quandaries you are grappling with. For example, pictures that employees drew of their relationship with another department revealed the underlying tension between the departments that they were previously unable to articulate and unwilling to openly discuss.

So what? Approximately 50% of our brains are devoted to processing visual information. No wonder images help us communicate about relationships and associations we have difficulty verbalizing. Written communication often creates a false impression of linearity while a picture frequently reveals the underlying complexity of a situation.

When you are communicating about critical issues, use methods that encourage dialogue rather than monologue. For example, in communicating about a major change in employee benefits, encourage "give and take" through face-to-face venues such as informal small group meetings instead of formal presentations that discourage questions.

So what? Although dialoguing takes more time and energy than just offering information, it provides the basis for deep understanding as both employees and managers have the chance to probe and discuss concerns. It also enhances the likelihood of buy-in.

Pay attention to rumors circulating in your organization. Researchers have determined that 80% of information sent via the grapevine is accurate.

So what? Although not all rumors are true, they do provide an indication of what people are talking about and the issues and concerns you should be prepared to address. When viewing rumors, it is best to put the information gleaned from rumors in the "yet to be confirmed" category.

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So what? This conveys verbally and nonverbally that you are trying to understand the other person’s thoughts, feelings and limitations. You communicate to the other person an attitude of genuine concern, understanding and involvement.

To become a more active listener, try the "say it back" technique. Using this technique, you restate in your own words what you understand another person is saying. For example, someone with whom you're conversing might say, "I think I'll be over-my-head with this job; I don't think I'm qualified to do it." Your "say-it-back" paraphrased response might be, "You think you might be overwhelmed by the responsibilities and lack the necessary skills…"

So what? Active listening demonstrates engagement and respect. It also expresses a concern for accuracy. Consider, for example, how most waitstaff at a restaurant restate your order after you place it. This allows you to amend your comments and enhance the likelihood of an accurate interpretation of your message.

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So what?  By linking your comments to someone with high credibility, you are more likely to 1) increase your exposure in a meeting, 2) enhance the likelihood that you will be taken seriously and 3) expand your degree of influence.

If you're attending a meeting that is inefficiently run, try asking these questions to get the meeting back on track:  1)  If no agenda:  "Just so we don't forget anything, would you mind if I jot down an agenda?" and 2) If no focus:  "Before we get too far, could we talk about what we'd like to accomplish...I want to make sure I'm focused on what's important."

So what?  Research has revealed that poorly conducted meetings can create frustration and stress, making people anxious and depressed.  Even if you're not leading the meeting, there are ways in which you can enhance its effectiveness.

Bring the "meeting after the meeting" into the meeting.  Oftentimes, there is more discussion and sense-making after a meeting than during the meeting.  At the end of your discussion, consider asking indirect questions such as, "How are people going to respond to this?" or "What misconceptions may people have about this?"

So what?  The discussion that takes place in the hallways and b the water cooler often determines whether people will be supportive of actions and decisions.  By encouraging discussion with these types of questions, you will help clarify meaning, process concerns and harvest dissent.

Use the "dinger" to keep a meeting on track.  A "dinger" can be a glass or other object, placed in the middle of the table and struck by any participant when he or she feels the group is veering from the subject at hand.

So what?  Using the "dinger" is a less intimidating and confrontational approach to keeping a meeting on course.  It might also incorporate a bit of levity into the meeting, with the possibility that someone might get "dinged".  It signals that you're serious about sticking to the agenda.

In a meeting, use a “parking garage” to store off-agenda items. For example, when someone brings up an item that is not directly related to the current discussion, note it on a flip chart in an area reserved for topics for future discussion.

So what? This is a diplomatic way to legitimize the person’s contributions while keeping the meeting on track.

So what? Using a flip chart legitimizes a person’s contribution. It also depersonalizes and de-emotionalizes the process by focusing attention on the ideas rather than the person who voiced the concern.

So what? People often erroneously assume that understanding = agreement. It is entirely possible to understand one another and disagree. However, creating understanding despite disagreement usually solidifies the relationship between the two parties.

So what? Using signposts in this manner focuses group members’ attention on the task instead of on personalities. It also demonstrates that you are listening and understanding what is transpiring in the discussion.

So what? You cannot assume that silence = acquiescence, nor can you assume that everyone will feel the same degree of comfort raising concerns during a discussion. This is particularly true for those with more introverted personalities.

So what? Focusing “face time” on interpreting information and decision-making is a more efficient use of the participants’ time. It is more likely to energize the audience and it creates a forward-thinking mentality vs. one that focuses on the past.

Use the "Rule of Thirds" to plan a meeting agenda: 1) For the first third of the meeting (the "get-go" phase), cover announcements and easy items; 2) for the second third (the "heavy-work" stage), cover the difficult items, and 3) for the last third (the "decompression" stage), focus on discussion and the easiest topics.

So what? Solving a few simple problems in the beginning of the meeting builds a mindset for problem-solving as well as momentum to solve more complex problems. Additionally, research and experience reveal that important business should be handled as much as possible within the middle third of the meeting because that is when group members tend to have the most physical energy and sharpest psychological focus.

At the end of a meeting, distribute an evaluation sheet, asking participants for feedback. Participants might rank on an "agree-disagree" scale, such items as: "Important issues were discussed in the meeting" and "Overall, I thought the meeting was worthwhile". Additionally, they can respond to open questions such as, "The best part of the meeting was…", and "The meeting could be improved by…."

So what? This evaluation process provides continuous improvement ideas. For example, the facilitator can learn how to improve his or her organizational or meeting management skills. Additionally, it ensures that everyone has a "voice" in the process.

Use a quiz as an icebreaker for a meeting. Consider a situation where survey results will be discussed and the attendees feel that they already know the results. The meeting convenor can develop a 10-item objective quiz on the results, asking items such as "The most frequent complaint about our products was ____?"

So what? The quiz acts as an attention-getter and focuses attention on issues to be discussed. Additionally, it can be used as a summary of the key points and is a hedge against "over-confidence" of meeting attendees.

Reward meeting participants for intriguing comments. Consider throwing out “virtual candies” or handing out the real thing to those who contribute important insights.

So what? This is a modest, yet playful technique that recognizes and rewards contributions.
Additionally, it acknowledges work done within meetings rather than just at the completion of projects.

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So what?  A label, image or catchphrase provides a mental focus that allows people to make sense of on-going events.  It serves as a point of identity and motivation, and encourages employees to direct attention to issues that matter to business success. 

When you need to motivate people to not engage in risky behavior, use personal images rather than statistics or percentages.  For example, one firm wanted to illustrate that if certain behaviors persisted, 10% of employees were likely to incur an injury.  Instead of using the statistic, they used a bar chart with 10 people figures on a line.  One of the ten figures was highlighted in a different color.

So what?  The way you talk about a risk has an enormous impact on the perception about that risk.  Researchers have found that when the imagery is more vivid (as in using the people figures), people respond more emotionally and perceive a higher degree of risk.  On the other hand, expressing data in percent leads to a less emotional response because people are less likely to be able to visualize the actual individuals involved in the risky behavior.

When you're communicating on a regular basis about a particular issue, frame the communication around a theme that is memorable, motivational and actionable.  For example, one organization used the theme Extreme Makeover for communication before, during and after a major renovation of its physical space.  Items such as miniature hardhats and yellow barrier tape were strategically placed around the facility to reinforce the theme and to add an element of fun.

So what?  A theme provides a mental focus that allows people to make sense of on-going events.  It serves as a point of identity and motivation and encourages employees to direct attention to issues that matter to business success.

Use repetition to reinforce your message. One chancellor of a regional university repeats a favorite slogan, "Connecting learning to life" in every speech he gives.  In fact, he often repeats it multiple times within each presentation.  It enables him to provide a point of focus to justify initiatives at the university, while it helps the public to understand the rationale  for new programs.

So what?  Although you might have repeated a message numerous times, repetition of a key point accomplishes several things:  1) it spreads your message to many audiences that may not have previously heard it, and 2) it reminds those who have heard it before about its importance and how serious you are about the issue.

Clarify potentially ambiguous comments by using the "blackout" tactic.  For example, after make a statement, you might consider following it up with a series of, "I am not saying X;  I am not saying Y."  More specifically, if you're providing input on the direction of a project, you might follow up your thoughts with, "I'm not saying that we shouldn't pursue the Alpha project or that we should disband our work on Beta; what I am saying it that we should devote our energies for the next quarter to Gamma."

So what?  This tactic can be useful because it clarifies the precise meaning of the speaker.  In essence, the speaker has blocked out certain probably interpretations or misinterpretations of the remarks.  When the original remark is made, it is as if a stage manager turns on numerous spotlights to illuminate the stage.  As the speaker says, "I do not mean...," it is as if one stage light at a time is extinguished until the precise meaning remains.

Be aware of communicating "do-not-touch-the-paint" type of messages.  One company felt compelled to address some unproductive and unprofessional responses they were receiving to a survey question.  Employee-respondents were using this venue to make personal attacks on supervisors and coworkers.  Instead of saying, "Please do not make personal attacks in phrasing your question to the executive team" they said "Thank you for focusing your questions on business-related issues."

So what?  Oftentimes, "Do-not-touch-the-paint" type of messages invite the very type of behavior they are trying to prevent.  It becomes too enticing to not "touch the paint" or in this case, make personal attacks.

When you're explaining your point to other people and they seem puzzled or unpersuaded, ask how they see it differently.  For example, a common tendency is to ask for agreement, by asking, "Does this make sense?" or "Don't you agree?"  Instead try "That is how I see it; how do you see it?"  or, more pointedly, "How do you see it differently?"

So what?  Asking for agreement is reassuring, but many people may be reluctant to share their reservations and uncertainties thinking that you don't really want to hear them.  By asking how they view the situation, you are more likely to discover their true reactions.

Make sure that your language doesn't "date" you.  For example, if your coworkers are significantly younger than you, watch for the tendency to express comments such as, "I was doing this before you were born" or "We tried this 15 years ago and it didn't work".  Focus on language that coaches rather than parents; on language that is future-focused rather than language stuck in the past.

So what?  These types of comments create a parent-child type of relationship rather than an adult-adult relationship.  The phrases instantly "age" you and create more of a divide between you and your younger cohorts.

Provide routine updates to coworkers and employees rather than rely on one, large-scale communication event.  Even when there is nothing dramatic to report, providing routine updates helps build trusting relationships.

So what?  The frequency of communication sends powerful signals on the value you place on keeping people informed.  If you only communicate when something "big" happens, you set up the expectation that communication occurs only when things are very good or very bad.  Often those expectations overshadow the actual message you are trying to communicate.  As a result, the reactions to your communication may be less than optimal.

Pay careful attention to the words that a communicator frequently uses.  These words often contain special meanings and unique connotations for the communicator.  Probe for deeper meaning, as the words often represent a concept that's important to the sender, but why they're important may not be evident.  For example, some executives are fond of using the terms "strategic" or "world-class".  What do these words actually mean to them?  How do they determine that something actually is "world-class"?

So what?  Once you figure out the answers to these questions, you'll know how to better exert influence and predict how others will respond.  The result is an opportunity to foster stronger relationships.

Make use of the "rewind" button when you believe you message might be misunderstood.  Typically we focus on what we want to say vs. how someone might misunderstand us.  For example, rewind phrases might be statements such as "Let me say this another way", or "Let me rephrase this..."

So what?  This expedites the process of understanding because you are not wasting the receiver's time trying to decipher an idea.  It announces to audience members that you're aware that an idea can be expressed more clearly or succinctly.  It may also indicate that you've paid attention to their non-verbal cues indicating that further explanation is needed.

When selecting a central theme for your communications, carefully consider the connotation of the words you choose. For example, one group debated between using the words “daily” and “every day” in their theme. The group settled on “every day” because it did not conjure up the sense of routine or tedium that they felt “daily” conveyed.

So what? Different words that seem to represent similar concepts often resonate in very different ways with listeners. Consequently, people will respond to the “catch phrase” or message in ways that may not be consistent with the intention of the creators of the message.

So what? This is like the little boy who cried “Wolf”. After awhile, the high priority tag loses its impact and we end up ignoring it. If everything is considered “high priority”, then nothing is. This practice will eventually undermine the sender’s credibility when something really is high priority but is not acknowledged as high priority by the audience.

So what? People often erroneously assume that understanding = agreement. It is entirely possible to understand one another and disagree. However, creating understanding despite disagreement usually solidifies the relationship between the two parties.

So what? Secondary messages are very powerful. In many cases, people react as much or more to the secondary messages as they do to the primary message..

So what? By closing off further discussion, you inhibit people from expressing their concerns and opinions. In addition to potentially adversely affecting the work climate, you may miss opportunities to work toward creative solutions to difficult situations. People may turn to the grapevine to express concerns and to undermine an initiative.

Recognize how your communication sets expectations. For example, if you promise a customer delivery on the 16th but the shipment arrives on the 18th, the customer is bound to be disappointed. On the other hand, a customer expecting delivery on the 18th but receiving it on the 16th will be delighted.

So what? People respond more to the expectation they have to an event than to the actual event. The date is less important than the expectation about the date. This is why the maxim “under-promise, over-deliver” works so well.

Choose the right communicators to relay your message. For example, when you’re planning the communication to explain a new process, select a person who is especially skilled at presenting technical information in an organized manner. On the other hand, if your goal is to motivate a team, choose a communicator who is enthusiastic, engaging and energetic.

So what? Identifying the special skills of communicators and strategically selecting them to relay messages will more effectively “link” to the needs and tendencies of your audience. The result is a greater likelihood that the communication will be effective.

When sharing information, consider a message strategy of "underscoring and exploring" rather than a strategy of "spraying and praying". For example, instead of spraying coworkers and employees with all kinds of information, focus on communicating a few core messages and exploring the implications.

So what? The "spray and pray" message strategy presumes that more information = better communication and that people will be able to sort out the significant from the insignificant. Both are dubious assumptions. On the other hand, the "underscore and explore" strategy assumes that communication is not complete until people can explore the implications of information in a disciplined way, actively dealing with potential misunderstandings and unrecognized obstacles.

Seize opportunities to not only talk about "what" will happen in the organization, but also "why" or the reasons it will happen. It's far easier to talk about "what" than it is "why", but the long-term payoff is greater for discussing the rationale. For example, instead of just sharing business or sales projections, discuss the factors and trends that influenced your projections.

So what? Sharing the rationale allows coworkers and employees to better understand how you make decisions; in effect your "thinking routine". This helps others to better anticipate how you are likely to respond to future events.

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So what?  Since we can only judge others by what we observe, it's possible that we might misinterpret what others are thinking and intending.  Checking your interpretations of other peoples' unspoken messages minimizes potential misunderstandings.

Ask a trusted confidante how your facial expressions and gestures might be misperceived.  One individual was surprised to learn that her intent expression of concentration was perceived by others as anger or confusion.

So what? Effective communicators are sensitive to how their messages--verbal and nonverbal--might be misperceived.  In fact, oftentimes many people respond more to nonverbals than to the stated message.

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So what?  Targeting the type of feedback you provide reveals your attentiveness to your audience's needs and uniqueness.  As a result, you will more likely motivate the coworker or employee to seek continuous improvement opportunities.

When providing feedback to a colleague or co-worker, frame problem areas as "opportunities for continuous improvement" and link them to something that is motivating to the person.  For example, instead of saying, "You need to work on your spelling and grammar", try "I know you're interested in continuously improving and being viewed as a consummate professional; one opportunity is to focus on proper grammar usage and spelling.  For example..."

So what?  This positive orientation accomplishes several things:  1) it communicates your belief that the person is motivated by continuing to attain a higher level of performance and 2) it links the area of improvement to attaining a personal aspiration.

Routinely recognize employees for their contributions. Recognition can take the form of an expression of appreciation or a sincere pat-on-the-back. As the best-seller One-Minute Manager suggests, “catch” employees doing the right things and tell them. In fact, our research shows that over 40% of employees are dissatisfied with the amount and quality of daily feedback.

So what? The daily pat-on-the-back may do more good than the most carefully planned appraisal interview. Rewards and recognition are critical components to having “engaged” employees. Research reveals that employees who feel connected and involved in the organization—vs. those who are “pleasantly plateaued”—are more productive and contribute more value to their company’s bottom line.

So what? Discussing personality traits, which are often viewed as unchangeable aspects of an individual, creates defensiveness and an unwillingness to change. On the other hand, you can change behaviors through skill-building.

So what? The descriptive comment reinforces what is valued and is more likely to influence the employee's future behavior. It also reveals that the co-worker or manager pays attention to the employee's performance.

Think like a coach when conducting a performance appraisal. Coaches focus on continuous improvement and elevating the performance of their players. Begin with, "We're here to enhance your performance and contributions to the team", instead of "We're here to conduct your annual performance appraisal" (sigh).

So what? 60% of employees are dissatisfied with the performance feedback system in their organization. The underlying problem is that some appraisers avoid the process, while others sugar-coat the results. Successful appraisers don't view a performance appraisal as a burden, but as an educational opportunity to maximize the individual's contributions to the organization.

When criticizing an employee's work, begin with positive and clarifying comments. You can frame the initial criticism by suggesting that perhaps your instructions weren't clear. For example, you might begin by stating, "You've been doing a nice job with the arrangements for the quarterly meeting. Maybe I haven't made it clear that you're also responsible for managing media relations. Lately I've found that the media have not been contacted about important events and developments…."

So what? Relaying negative news demands a delicate balance of maintaining goodwill while presenting the problem. Starting with a positive statement creates a more conducive atmosphere so the criticism will seem less like a one-sided attack. The positive words, though, should build a motivating platform, not sugar-coat the criticism.

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So what?  This approach conveys that you respect people's interests and will not act in a self-serving manner.  It communicates a sense of honesty and integrity that reinforces your appeal and makes people more likely to find you credible.

Apply the following tests to increase the likelihood that the testimonials you use to prove a point will have the impact you intended:  1) Is the source reliable? 2) Is the source an expert in the field? 3) Is the source free from bias? 4) Is the expert relying on appropriate information to express an opinion?

So what? Testimonials can be powerful at dramatizing a point and gaining the attention of the audience.  But if the testimonial fails any of these tests, the credibility of the person presenting the testimonial can be undermined and a less than optimal decision may result.

To approach a respected colleague to act as your mentor, start out with a specific request on a small issue.  For example, instead of directly asking, "Would you mind being my mentor?" try "Would you mind looking over this proposal?  You're so good at getting your points across...I'd appreciate any advice you have on how I could improve this."

So what?  Starting out with a small request is a way to use the "foot in the door" technique.  Using this persuasive technique, your colleague accepts your relatively minor request, after which you may propose a more significant request.  Because the colleague has already reviewed your proposal, he or she will be more inclined to accept another offer from you in the future.  The result:  it builds the relationship slowly and is less likely to be perceived as an overwhelming task.  Then, as the bond grows and evolves, it is a natural progression to continue to provide further counsel and advice.

Begin your persuasive letters with a single sentence paragraph, using authoritative, confident language.  For example, if you're requesting an adjustment for a faulty printer, consider "I took a chance that the Edson printer we purchased from you would prove to be as reliable as the other ten Edson's our bank uses."  Then, in the following paragraphs, continue by describing the specifics of what happened, how you were inconvenienced and what action you're requesting.

So what?  The first words--spoken or in writing--are the most important.  Additionally, if the words are reinforced visually by being set apart, you enhance the attention-getting feature.  You have only the first few seconds to capture peoples' attention to entice them to read on.  If we seize them from the start, we enhance the likelihood of a successful remedy.

Use the motivated sequence to persuade a supportive audience.  The motivated sequence begins by capturing the attention of your audience with a story, illustration, or a startling statistic--and then identifies a pressing need that the audience has.  Demonstrate that your proposal satisfies the need, and help your readers or listeners visualize what your solution will do for them.  Finally, tell them what you want them to do.

So what?  The motivated sequence encompasses all of the psychological elements (such as attention and memory) that must be present to persuade.  Therefore, incorporating these elements in this order increases the probability that your persuasive efforts will be successful.

To win over neutral or hostile audiences, present and argue both sides of the issue.  Begin by presenting your opponents' position, showing that you recognize their viewpoint.  Then refute it point by point by questioning their evidence and/or disproving their arguments.  For example, "Bob, I agree that investing in a new wellness center will be expensive.  Consider the long-term benefits, though:  by investing in the facility, we'll save on our health insurance premiums, provide an attractive recruitment feature..."

So what?  By assessing your audience's receptivity to your ideas and modifying the structure of your presentation accordingly, you will be more likely to persuade people to accept your point of view.

Use "reluctant" testimonials to build support for your arguments.  These are endorsements from people who would traditionally be in opposition to your viewpoint.  For example, a Democrat testifying for a Republican proposal (or vice versa) is far more persuasive that a Democrat campaigning for a Democrat proposal.  Likewise, a competitor praising your company's product is far more influential than an endorsement coming from an employee of your company.

So what?  "Reluctant" testimonials tend to be more persuasive, as the audience realizes that they do not have a vested interest.  "Eager" testimonials, or testimonials given by those who have a vested interest, tend to be discounted because the person has something to gain.

Apply the following tests to enhance the likelihood that the statistics you use to build your case will have the impact you've intended:  1)  Is the source from where you pulled the statistic reliable and unbiased? 2) Is the statistic recent and applicable to the time period in question? and 3) If the statistic was drawn from a sample, was the sample a) big enough to be reliable and b) representative of the total population?

So what?  Statistics can be powerful at providing strong support for your points.  But, they are oftentimes gathered inappropriately and interpreted incorrectly which minimizes their usefulness and undermines decision-making.

Use of variety of facts, statistics and expert opinion when you're trying to persuade others to accept your idea.  For example, instead of saying "Locating our mill in Portage instead of in Plymouth would result in considerable savings", consider "Locating our mill in Portage instead of Plymouth would result in annual savings of $500,000.  Additionally, the recent issue of Market News highlighted the favorable business climate in Portage."

So what? Providing convincing evidence helps to build your case and bolster your argument for why something should be done.  Without the supporting facts, statistics and expert opinion, you are merely suggesting that something should be done.  Additionally, using a variety of types of evidence links into the different ways people process information.

When you're explaining your point to other people and they seem puzzled or unpersuaded, ask how they see it differently.  For example, a common tendency is to ask for agreement, by asking, "Does this make sense?" or "Don't you agree?"  Instead try "That is how I see it; how do you see it?"  or, more pointedly, "How do you see it differently?"

So what?  Asking for agreement is reassuring, but many people may be reluctant to share their reservations and uncertainties thinking that you don't really want to hear them.  By asking how they view the situation, you are more likely to discover their true reactions.

Apply the following tests to increase the likelihood that the testimonials you use to prove a point will have the impact you intended:  1)  Is the source reliable?  2)  Is the source an expert in the field?  3)  Is the source free from bias?  4)  Is the opinion of the expert similar to that of other experts in the field?

So what?  Testimonials can be powerful at dramatizing a point and gaining the attention of the audience.  But, if they are viewed as being unreliable and not having expert knowledge, their usefulness is minimized.  Some potential ramifications are that their use will 1) undermine sound decision-making and 2) detract from the credibility of the person presenting the testimonial.

Explicitly link your persuasive points to your ultimate objective.  For example, consider one of the most famous phrases ever uttered in a court room--"If the glove does not fit, you must acquit" (O.J. Simpson trial).  Not only is the phrase memorable, it also shows how the glove argument links to the attorney's ultimate objective (acquittal).

So what?  People often erroneously assume that the evidence "speaks for itself."  It may not and people may fail to recognize the implications that you find so obvious.

Keep a neutral subject line for a memo in which you’re trying to persuade a resistant audience. For example, if you’re trying to persuade your boss to sell a division, write, “Analysis of Strata Division Profitability” instead of “Proposal to sell Strata”.

So what? A reluctant audience is more likely to agree after it understands the need. Therefore your job is to explain the merits of your proposal and show how the reader will benefit from doing as you ask. This must be done before asking for action; a neutral subject line accomplishes this.

Use an indirect approach when you are trying to persuade an audience that is likely to be resistant to your idea. Follow this approach: 1) present your reasons and justification, 2) deal with any obstacles, then 3) make your recommendation. For example, if you’re trying to lobby for the purchase of a color printer you might say to your “resistant” manager, “An interesting study I came across revealed that audience members remember twice as much information when color slides are used in a presentation instead of black and white…The new Lexington color printer would serve us well…It is rated a “Best Buy” in … Although there is a moratorium on expenditures until February, if we buy the Lexington before December we will receive an extended warranty…So that we can have this printer in time for our upcoming training sessions, may we order the Lexington for $600 by September 1?”

So what? A reluctant audience is more likely to agree after it understands the need. Therefore your job is to explain the merits of your proposal and show how the reader will benefit from doing as you ask. Because a reluctant reader is more likely to agree to an idea after understanding its merits, the organizational plan is to convince the reader before asking for action.

So what? If your audience is likely to listen objectively and be receptive to your idea, a direct style saves time and immediately satisfies your reader’s or listener’s curiosity about your purpose.

So what? An intelligent audience finds objective evidence, more persuasive than emotion. Logical evidence bolsters your credibility. The more credible your audience perceives you, the better your chances of retaining their attention and persuading them.

Use multiple testimonials to support your ideas. Avoid relying on one lengthy quote from a highly credible source to back up your point. Instead use three or four short endorsements that essentially advocate a similar position. You might use the book jacket of a bestseller as your template.

So what? Research has shown that quotations from multiple sources tend to be more persuasive than from a single source. Amazingly, this occurs even when the audience knows the voices are artificially created by computer voice synthesizers. An audience can more easily discount one endorsement than it can multiple voices of support.

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So what?  While we're communicating that we're trying to be in sync with our conversation partner, over-relying on apologies can make us appear overly eager, anxious or weak.

Put a fresh spin on your message by using "re" words.  "Renew," "restore" and "revitalize" have more appeal than "nostalgia" because they connote injecting new life into a previously familiar concept.  Cosmetic companies, as well as political campaigns, have discovered the powerful impact of these terms to communicate "new" and "improved."

So what?  "Re" words are powerful because they link positive associations we have from the past to promising advances in the present and future.

Limit the use of imperative sentences in your one-on-one, interpersonal communication.  Imperative sentences, such as "Tell her she doesn't have to turn in the report," give a command or request.  Instead, consider the following alternatives:  1) an interrogative sentence which conveys a polite request, as in "Would you mind telling her she doesn't have to turn in the report?" or 2) a declarative sentence, as in "Thanks for telling her that she doesn't have to turn in the report."

So what?  All three sentences convey the same content message, but they convey different relationship messages.  After all, parents often use the imperative form when talking to children.  The implicit connection to the memory of the parent - child relationship can undermine an adult - adult relationship.  Therefore, an imperative sentence may convey a more demanding tone, which could result in the audience being offended or insulted.

Don't over-rely on grammar checkers to catch all your spelling, punctuation, grammar and style problems.  Consider these sentences that "passed" the grammar checker test:  "Here is my idea--four what its worth" (corrections:  "Here is my idea--for what it's worth") and "We are establishing a $1000 scholarship for a jr. or sr. majoring in Marketing" (corrections:  "We are establishing a $1,000 scholarship for a junior or senior majoring in marketing.").

So what?  In one random test, applying the grammar and spelling checker to a Word document missed 82% of the spelling, punctuation and grammar errors.  Additionally, it missed a stylistic error by not identifying an overly long paragraph (164 words) which was considerably longer than the recommended length in business writing (60-80 words).

Use more abstract language when you want to encourage creativity or give yourself some "wiggle room."  Language that is more abstract is more general, while language that is less abstract is more specific.  Consider, for example, a very general statement, "Let's get something to eat."  Decreasing the level of abstraction--in stages--might result in statements such as:  "Let's go out for dinner," "Let's go somewhere casual for dinner," "Let's go to Applebee's for dinner."  The first statement opens up the conversation to alternatives; the last statement makes your preference clearly known.

So what?  Being more vague by using more abstract language can be used effectively if the speaker doesn't want to commit to a particular position.  Consider how effectively politicians use this strategy when they they don't want to get boxed in to supporting a particular platform.

To explain an abstract idea, provide vivid comparisons to something familiar and concrete.  Superman's creators could have said that he is "fast and powerful!"  Instead, we all know that Superman is "Faster than speeding bullet, more powerful than a locomotive and able to leap tall buildings in a single bound."

So what?  Concrete ideas are easier to understand and remember.  Additionally, vivid comparison minimize the likelihood of being misunderstood because people are more likely to interpret concrete ideas similarly.

When asking for action, use the appropriate level of politeness.  For example, the following statements all convey the same content, but vary in their level of politeness: 1) "Give me a response by next week (an order)", 2) "Please give me a response by next week (a polite order)", 3) Responses should be given by next week (an indirect request)", and 4) "Would you be able to give me a response by next week (a question)?"  A general rule of thumb:  you need less politeness when you're asking for something routine, small or that will benefit the reader; more politeness when you're asking for something that will inconvenience the reader.

So what?  Words convey not only a content message, but also a relationship message.  The relationship message provides a signal about the interpersonal dynamics between the communicators.  For example, is the dynamic more like a military general talking to a private, or is it like two generals conversing?  The phrasing of the message has consequences--some of which may be unintended.

Use acronyms or initials for the names of organizations only after you have first defined them or when you're sure they will be readily understood by your audience.  For example, if you're not sure that everyone in your intended audience knows what the SBA is, write out Small Business Administration the first time you mention it, and then shorten it when your readers have had a chance to become familiar with it.

So what?  Oftentimes, initially shortening a term is self-defeating as your readers may not be familiar with your "shortcut".  This causes them to devote more time--rather than less time--to figure out your intended meaning.

Watch your use of jargon when communicating to your customers, clients or those outside of your department or field.  The "dead cat bounce" may be great communication shorthand for investment professionals to describe a stock that's increased in price after a rapid, steep decline, but will most likely anger many animal lovers who are not investment specialists.

So what?  Jargon is an efficient way of communicating for people who share the same language, but may be mystifying and misunderstood by those who don't.  Additionally, the audience may consider the use of technical vocabulary as "off-putting" and may think that the sender is intentionally keeping it "out-of-the-loop."

Consider using a twist on a familiar phrase to provide a new point of view.  For example, the chancellor of the University of Wisconsin-Green Bay cleverly tried to emphasize the ownership-type of relationship he is trying to foster in the community.  Instead of saying the traditional "University of Wisconsin Green Bay" when referring to the institution, he refers to it as "Green Bay's University of Wisconsin."

So what?  This approach increases the impact of your message.  Additionally, it conveys a respect for the traditions of the past while providing a fresh perspective.

Be aware of "bypassing" in your communication.  Bypassing occurs when the sender and receiver "miss" each other with their meanings.  For example, if you ask a group of people how often is "often," you will very likely get different responses.  To ensure that sender and receiver understand one another, ask questions and probe for the intended meaning.  Also, be person-minded, realizing that when the individual says, "It never happens," he may really mean that it happens infrequently.

So what?  Because meaning is in people, not words, people could actually think they're agreeing with one another when they're actually disagreeing.  Alternatively, they may think they're disagreeing when they're actually agreeing.

If you're trying to minimize fears when you have data to report, use percentages rather than more vivid, personal images.  For example, researchers asked college students which occurrence about the incidence of cancer they found more risky:  1) one that had a chance of killing roughly 1,300 out of 10,000 people, or 2) one that had a chance of killing roughly 13% of people.  The students rated option #1 20% more dangerous.

So what?  The way you talk about a risk has an enormous impact on the perception about that risk.  Expressing data in percent leads to a less emotional response, because people are less likely to be able to "visualize" the actual people involved with the risk.  On the other hand, imagery is more vivid with the option #1 communication, which leads to a more emotional response and perception of higher risk.

Mentally "red flag" the tendency to use "always" and "never" when you're frustrated with someone or some occurrence.  Instead of saying, "Why do you always criticize how my office looks?" try "When you tell me that my office looks like a bomb hit it, I feel hurt.  It makes me feel like my character and my competence are being attacked."  Or, suggest what you would wish to hear instead, such as "It would be great to hear something like 'I know a creative mind is at work in this office.'"

So what?  "Always" and "never" effectively communicate frustration, but the terms have several  drawbacks because:  1) they suggest that it will be difficult or impossible for the other person to change behavior and 2) they invite an argument over the question of frequency, as it is seldom accurate that someone criticizes every time.

Avoid the tendency to express your ideas and beliefs as "The Truth".  For example, instead of saying, "Reading from notes when presenting is bad", say "I believe reading from notes when presenting minimizes the connection with the audience and the opportunity to adapt to the audience's feedback."

So what?  Presenting your opinions as fact sounds presumptuous and leads to an atmosphere of defensiveness and resentment.  On the other hand, sharing your thoughts as your opinions opens the door to a more thoughtful discussion about the issue, which leads to better understanding and decision-making.

Make sure that your language doesn't "date" you.  For example, if your coworkers are significantly younger than you, watch for the tendency to express comments such as, "I was doing this before you were born" or "We tried this 15 years ago and it didn't work".  Focus on language that coaches rather than parents; on language that is future-focused rather than language stuck in the past.

So what?  These types of comments create a parent-child type of relationship rather than an adult-adult relationship.  The phrases instantly "age" you and create more of a divide between you and younger cohorts.

Look for opportunities to use positive language, conveying what you can do instead of what you can’t do. For example, instead of saying, “You did not sign your name on the form; therefore it’s impossible to process the application”, say, “As soon as we receive the signed form, we will process the application.” Alternatively, instead of saying, “I cannot speak at your November meeting”, try using the subjunctive mood (“wish”, “would”) to “soften the blow”, as in, “I wish it were possible for me to speak at your November meeting, but…”.

So what? This approach communicates goodwill. People will be more open to your suggestions or ideas because the language creates less defensiveness.

Use parallel form to ensure that ideas are logically connected and “stick together”. Abraham Lincoln’s much quoted, “government of the people, by the people, and for the people” displays parallelism. For example, “The goals of the project are: 1) to motivate the sales force, 2) customers can access our system easier and 3) efficient operations” can be expressed more coherently by using parallel form as in, “The goals of the project are to: 1) motivate the sales force, 2) allow customers to more easily access our system and 3) provide more efficient operations.

So what? Using similar grammatical structure for similar ideas helps the reader understand the intended meaning by smoothly linking ideas. It also adds a nice rhythm to sentences which also enhances retention.

When communicating organizational or unit goals, use a verb to clarify the objective. For example, instead of having a goal of "High Performing Workplace", refine this by adding a verb to communicate what you envision about the workplace. Examples might include: "Creating a High Performing Workplace" or "Sustaining a High Performing Workplace".

So what? The addition of a verb clarifies the goal, thus making it more likely that employees will know their role in attaining the goal. It implies action-what they can do about it--as opposed to passivity.

Check for opportunities to be more concise by avoiding unnecessary words. For example, note how "due to the fact that…" can be reduced to "because", "in order to…" can be shortened to "to", and "in the event that…" can be expressed as "if". Also, note the needless repetition in expressions such as, "past history" (all history is past), "repeat again", "plan ahead", and "The meeting will be held at 10:00 am in the morning."

So what? Given the time constraints most businesspeople face, it is critical to express your point directly. The revised phrases make every word count, resulting in shorter, more direct communication.

When writing business memos and notes, use active voice when you want to stress the "doer" of the action. In other words, instead of saying, "The project was completed by our team", consider "Our team completed the project".

So what? The statement is shorter, clearer and stronger. Plus, the subject ("our team") gets credit for the action ("completed the project").

Avoid a common tendency to use hidden verbs, which are verbs that are changed to nouns. For example, instead of saying, "Tom made an announcement that he will perform an analysis of our request", say, "Tom announced that he will analyze our request". Other common examples of hidden verbs include expressions such as "arrived at the conclusion", "came to an agreement", "made an announcement". Instead, use "concluded", "agreed", and "announced" to convey the main action of the sentence.

So what? The statements convey more action which makes them more interesting. An added benefit is that they are shorter and more direct.

Focus your message on what your listeners or readers want to know, how they will be affected by your message or how they will benefit from the message. For example, instead of saying, "We are opening the new bank branch in Grafton on May 15", say, "You will be able to bank in Grafton beginning May 15". Or, instead of writing, "Our company has six distribution centers throughout the country", say, "So that we can get our product to you faster, our company has six distribution centers throughout the country".

So what? Stressing the "you" orientation maximizes the impact and persuasive power of the message. It shows that you understand that person's situation, feelings and needs, and avoids sounding selfish and uninterested.

To avoid the clumsiness of the "he/she" phrasing in instances when the gender is unclear, consider using plural nouns and pronouns. For example instead of saying, "An accountant must pass a difficult exam before he can become a CPA", try, "Accountants must pass a difficult exam before they can become a CPA". An alternative is using second-person pronouns ("you", "your") as in, "You must pass a difficult exam before becoming a CPA."

So what? This is a more tactful approach that avoids offending some audience members.

Watch for common grammar mistakes such as improper agreement between the subject, verb and pronouns. For example, "Included in this envelope is an application and fee schedule", is accurately expressed as, "Included in this envelope are an application and fee schedule". The statement, "An accountant must pass a difficult exam before they can become a CPA" is accurately expressed as, "Accountants must pass a difficult exam before they can become a CPA".

So what? Correct grammar increases the receiver's likely understanding of the message, as well as enhancing the credibility of the sender.

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So what?  Most business presentations focus on the logic of an argument and provide reams of facts and figures.  Connecting to the heart by recognizing and addressing emotion-laden concerns engages and motivates your listeners at a deeper level.

To manage speech anxiety, consider the following tips:  1) practice in the room before your presentation begins, 2) prepare notes that only highlight key ideas or phrases and have them on a folded 8 1/2" x 11" sheet of paper and 3) greet and make small conversation with attendees.

So what?  1) Practicing in the room acts as a "dress rehearsal," which helps to familiarize you with the room, microphone and your physical location. 2) Too many notes will act as a distraction because you will have a tendency to read them rather than glance at them.  Also, a small sheet of paper will draw less attention that you are using notes.  3) Greeting and conversing with attendees helps to create a welcoming, positive atmosphere.  Your presentation will be a natural continuation of these conversations.

Adapt your presentation to your audience's visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning style predispositions.  Incorporate simple pictures and graphs to connect with visual learners, tell stories and anecdotes to appeal to auditory learners and include some physical activities--role playing, handling a prototype or creating models--for the kinesthetic learners.

So what?  Research shows that 30 - 40% of people are visual learners, 20 - 30% are auditory learners and 30 - 50% are kinesthetic learners.  Adapting your presentation to different learning styles will help capture your audience's attention, ensure that they will remember your ideas and persuade them to respond to your message.

Limit the number of points in your presentation.  The strongest presentations are those in which a speaker makes just a few points, but reinforces them in a number of different ways.  Break your talk into threes if you can:  three examples, three reasons, etc.  For example, if you're presenting why your department should be awarded a special project, your headings might be:  the department's technical expertise, knowledge of the industry and special rapport with key individuals.

So what?  People are more likely to remember items in groups of three.  After all, we heard groups of three when we were small ("reading, writing and arithmetic"; "hop, skip and jump") and when we grew up ("blood, sweat and tears", "location, location, location!").

Vary the pace of your speech.  While there should be a rhythm to your spoken communication, there's a time to slow down and a time to speed up.  For example, to emphasize a thoughtful approach, you may want to slow down.  On the other hand, speeding up your speech may help to create a sense of momentum or combat a sluggish atmosphere.  One way speech coaches help professionals learn this skill is to practice reading aloud nursery rhymes.

So what?  This approach is particularly effective when making a presentation because you can "verbally underline" or emphasize key points.  It can also be a tool to energize a meeting.

When you're planning a presentation, clearly think through what you want to achieve.  In other words, what do you want to happen as a result of the presentation?  What do you want people to do, to understand, to believe or change their opinion about?  No matter what your goal is, you must define it before you start preparing.

So what?  Defining your goal will help you focus and keep to the point.  You will be better able to judge the points that truly support your goal and those that are unnecessary or irrelevant.

When designing slides for your oral presentation, follow the KISS principle:  keep it simple!  Use bullet point phrases, rather than complete sentences.  Limit the amount of information to 35 words or less on each slide.  Give each visual a title that makes a point, followed by three to five points.  Don't display the visual until you are ready to talk about it and when you do, avoid reading from it word-for-word.

So what?  The goal is to use visuals as an outline for your presentation, highlighting your main "talking" points rather than giving every detail.  The slides provide the jumping off point for discussion; they are not a substitute for it.

Move away from the podium for your next presentation.  Try decreasing the amount of space between you and your audience which frees you up to move about more comfortably.

So what?  Podiums create physical as well as psychological barriers.  The audience will perceive you as being more accessible instead of hearing "a lecture from on high".  Also, you will be more at ease being closer to the audience as it more closely resembles a personal conversation.

Before a presentation or a group meeting, check out the logistics of the room. Sit in various locations to identify any potential sound or viewing interference. Test out the projection equipment to ensure that all members will be able to view the presentation. Try out a lapel or lavalier microphone if you decide that one is needed.

So what? Often speakers focus so much on the content that they fail to take into account factors that impact the delivery of their presentation. Going through this preparation will enhance your comfort level with the physical environment as well as increase the likelihood that the presentation will be successful. These are elements that can “make or break” a presentation.

So what? One element that enhances your credibility is trustworthiness. The act of a well regarded colleague making the introduction demonstrates that an influential person thinks highly of you. By preparing your bio, you can have some influence over the content and the tone of the introduction, which helps to augment your credibility.

So what? Adapting your presentation to your audience’s characteristics, preferences and needs enhances the likelihood that the presentation will be successful. By tailoring your content and approach, the audience will find the presentation more memorable, pertinent, interesting and persuasive.

So what? Visuals are useful to explain difficult concepts, emphasize important information and demonstrate relationships such as trends and comparisons. Additionally, visuals add interest and increase the audience’s retention of information. After all, 50% of our brain is devoted to processing visual information.

So what? Being prepared to answer tough, challenging questions bolsters your credibility by providing you an opportunity to clarify arguments and challenge evidence and reasoning. Even if people disagree with your position, they are more likely to respect your ideas when you can demonstrate understanding. Additionally, it can minimize the potential hostility and combativeness of a situation.

So what? Variety in speech contributes to effective delivery. It enhances the audience’s interest and makes what you have to say more memorable.

So what? Preparing this short presentation forces you to think clearly about your idea and express it in a concise manner, focusing on the significant. As a result, you are ready to express the salient points when a spontaneous opportunity arises. Sometimes all the time you have to influence an important person is during a short elevator ride. Seize these moments and use them to your advantage.

So what? Printed copies help the audience follow your presentation. They also provide a permanent record of your major points and facilitate more thoughtful note-taking. A note of caution: overly detailed notes may actually hinder listening, as the audience may be reading ahead.

So what? The "signposts" increase the clarity of the presentation and better help the audience follow your organization. It also increases the likelihood that they will remember your critical points.

Devote less meeting time to viewing PowerPoint slides and more time to meaningful discussion about the underlying issues. For example, instead of spending 95% of meeting time to present a prearranged slide presentation, allocate 50% to the presentation and the rest to discussion.

So what? PowerPoint may not be as powerful as the name suggests. Highly polished slides often convey a false sense of permanence and formality that hides underlying uncertainties. They also discourage people from expressing their concerns. In fact studies reveal that participants are less likely to engage in meaningful discussions when they view formally prepared slide presentations. As one expert puts it, "PowerPointPhluff"-the chartjunk, corny clip art and over-produced layouts--often replace serious analysis.

When making an oral presentation, start off with a bang. Share a startling statement, relate a story, ask a question, quote a well-known person or use a dramatic prop or visual aid. In all cases, aim for a strong opening that is personalized and appropriate for your audience. For example, in a presentation that highlights dissatisfaction with the performance appraisal process, you might begin with a startling statistic such as, "40% of employees report that they do not have annual performance appraisals with their supervisor."

So what? The first words out of your mouth set the tone for the entire presentation. The introduction is a critical time to gain the attention and interest of the audience.

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Avoid asking "Do you understand what I'm saying?"  Instead, ask the intended audience to demonstrate understanding.  For example, you might ask something such as, "Just to clarify...what is your understanding of what we're going to do?" 

So what?  People are often reluctant to admit that they misunderstand.  They may even think they understand when they actually do not.  Checking for understanding helps ensure that the message sent = message received.

When asking questions, avoid the "open-to-closed switch" pitfall.  This occurs when you ask an "open" question, but then rephrase it as a narrow, "closed" question.  The following is an example of the "open-to-closed switch":  "Tell me about your training in advertising.  Do you have experience in radio and TV?"  Instead, give the respondent time to answer your first question.

So what?  In this "open-to-closed switch", the respondent is likely to answer the second question only.  Had the questioner given the respondent ample time to reply to the first question, it is likely that more and different types of information would have been offered.

When asking questions, avoid the common pitfall of forcing the respondent to answer "yes" or "no" or to choose among limited options when you really want to elicit more information.  For example, instead of asking, "Are you familiar with our project team?" ask "What do you know about our project team?"  Similarly, instead of asking, "Did you enjoy the weather or the recreational activities when you lived in Colorado?" ask "What did you enjoy most about living in Colorado?"

So what?  Oftentimes questions can not be adequately answered with a "yes" or "no" response.  Additionally, these types of "closed" questions may force the respondent to provide an artificial response.  Beginning the question with "What", "How", "Explain" instead of "Do you", "Can you", or "Would you" opens the questions up to let others do the talking, often revealing information you might not think to ask for.

When asking questions, ask only a single, precise question at a time instead of multiple questions. For example, instead of asking, “Tell me about your new position and how you found it”, ask either one of these questions.

So What? There are several pitfalls to asking more than one question at a time: 1) respondents may not remember all parts of the question, 2) some will select the portion they want to answer and ignore the rest, or 3) they may feel they are being subjected to a “third-degree” interrogation.

When asking questions, use a “funnel” sequence when you want to understand a person’s frame of reference. A funnel sequence starts with general, more abstract questions, moving to more specific questions. For example, you might begin with “Tell me about yourself”, moving to questions such as “Describe a difficult work situation that you successfully resolved.”

So What? This format of asking questions allows you to discover how others think about issues and what they deem important. For example, the person who responds to the general question, “Tell me about yourself” by discussing family provides insights into the role and importance of family in the person’s life.

Avoid asking “Why?” questions when listening for understanding. Almost any “Why” question can be converted into a “What” question. For example, instead of asking, “Why did you decide that?” ask “What factors led to this decision?”

Why? “Why” questions invite justification. People often feel like they have to defend their ideas. On the other hand, people are more comfortable sharing ideas—even vague ones—when asked “what” questions.

Use "open" as opposed to "closed" questions to encourage conversation and dialogue. For example, instead of using a "closed" question such as, "Do you enjoy your job?", use an "open" question such as, "Tell me about your current position".

So what? Open questions let others do the talking, revealing what they think is important, volunteering information you might not think to ask for. This might be especially useful in interviewing situations to allow the respondent to do the talking so the interviewer can listen, observe and determine the interviewee's priorities. On the other hand, closed questions are restrictive in nature and are designed to elicit limited information.

Use "follow-up", or "probing" questions to elicit further information during a conversation. To learn more information about a subject being discussed, try "informational probes" such as, "Tell me more about …" or "Explain further your point about…". Another alternative is to use "nudging probes" such as, "I see…", "And then?", or "Go on."

So what? Probing questions delve into answers for more information, explanation, clarification and verification. Responses to probes can reveal information that you never would have uncovered otherwise. This can be especially useful in interviewing situations when the respondent provides answers that appear to be incomplete, superficial or vague.

Use "neutral", as opposed to "leading" questions to encourage more honest and open conversation. For example, instead of asking a leading question such as, "I assume you like to work with people?" try "Tell me about your ideal work situation". Alternatively, instead of saying, "Most workers favor the new labor contract; how do you feel about it?" try "How do you feel about the new labor contract?"

So what? Neutral questions give respondents the freedom to answer as they wish, while leading questions nudge respondents toward answers the questioner wants to hear.

Use a clearinghouse probe when you are unsure if you have elicited all necessary information in an interview or a discussion. For example, you might ask, “What else have we not covered that would be important for me to know?” or “Have I missed anything that you can think of?”

So what? This type of probe literally “clears out” a topic. It gives the other party the opportunity to volunteer information that would not seem initially warranted by the original question or discussion.

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